ЛЕКЦИОННЫЙ КОМПЛЕКС по теме СТРАНОВЕДЕНИЕ БРИТАНИИ

ЛЕКЦИОННЫЙ КОМПЛЕКС

ЛЗ 1. Physical geography of the UK.

План

Location,

Climate

physical relief

component parts.

The official name of Britain is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. But people often make this name shorter - they call this country "the United Kingdom", or even "the UK".

The United Kingdom is situated to the north-west of Europe. Actually it is separated from Europe by the Channel. The Channel is not very broad, only about 40 kilometers. Now a tunnel constructed under the Channel lines up the UK with its nearest continental neighbor, France. So it is much easier to

reach the UK from Europe than earlier, when it could be done only on board the ship. Since 1973 the United Kingdom is a member of the European Union.

The United Kingdom is situated on the British Isles. The UK occupies the Island of Great Britain (which is the largest island in Europe), a number of small islands to the west of Scotland and the northern part of the Island of Ireland. The southern part of the Island of Ireland is the Republic of Eire.

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland consists of four almost independent countries. These are England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland.

England is bigger than other parts of the country in both its territory and population. Over 6O million people live in Britain, and about 75 percent of the British population lives in England. The capital of England as well as of the whole United Kingdom is London, which is situated in the south-east of England.

London and is more than a thousand years old. Scotland occupies the northern part of the Island of Great Britain. The area of Scotland is more than half as big as England. But Scotland has the lowest population density in the UK. Scotland has its own legal, banking and education systems. The capital of Scotland is Edinburgh. It is an old beautiful city. Glasgow is the main industrial centre of Scotland. Scotland is well-known for its beautiful mountainous scenery.

Wales is lying in the western part of the Island of Great Britain. It is not so populated as England - only about two million people live in Wales. Wales is one of the most beautiful parts of the British Isles - with hills and high mountains, deep rivers and valleys. The capital of Wales is Cardiff. It is the biggest city in Wales and also an important port.

Northern Ireland occupies the northern part of the Island of Ireland. The capital of this country is Belfast. Northern Ireland is the most problematical part of the UK. Some people in Northern Ireland want the independent of the UK. That is why there are permanent conflicts and terrorist acts organized by the Irish Republican Army (IRA) in the Northern Ireland and in other parts of the UK.

Foreigners often call everyone in the UK «English», but the Irish, the Welsh and the Scots don't like this, because they are Celts by the origin, and the English are the Tautens. Every part of the UK has its own language which is not like the English language.

Like its own language, each part of the United Kingdom also has its own national flower. The national emblem of England is the rose. The rose was adopted as England's emblem in the 15th century, around the time of the War of the Roses. The symbol of Wales is a daffodil, a beautiful white-and-yellow spring flower. And the Scots consider a thistle to be their symbol. A legend runs that this flower has saved an old Scottish castle from enemies, because one of them stepped over a thistle with big thorns and cried out of pain. Citizens of the UK call their banner the Union Flag or Union Jack. It is blue, red and white. This banner consists of the flags of Scotland, England and Ireland. The flag of Scotland is the Cross of Saint Andrew, the flag of England is the Cross of Saint George and the flag of Ireland is the Cross of Saint Patrick. And one can see that every cross is represented in the Union Jack.

The Capital of the UK - London

The capital of the UK is London. It is a very old and big city. London is situated at the mouth of the Thames river. First mentions about a settlement there date back to the time when Celtic tribes lived on the British Isles, and it was long before Christ. In the first centuries of the Christian era London became an important city of the Roman empire. And in the 12th century it already was the capital of England.

London consists of several main districts, and also includes numerous suburbs. The main districts were formed during the long life of the city. For example, the City is the centre of business life with many banks, offices and different enterprises except for industrial ones. In the Westminster historic buildings and other places of interest are concentrated, and this is also the district where the Queen lives. There also such districts as West-End, East-End, Cheap-Side, and their names are well-known in the world due to English literature.

There are many historic buildings, various museums, galleries, and other places of interest in London.

The Tower is a world-famous symbol of London, it is more than 900 years old. During long centuries it was a fortress, a royal palace, a prison... But now it is one of the most popular museums. The Tower is guarded by Yeomen Warders who wear splendid scarlet and gold uniforms. The Tower is famous for the ravens, too - a legend has it that without them the Tower will fall. This is why all the employees of the museum as well as the tourists take care of these birds.

Almost all English Kings and Queens had been crowned in Westminster Abbey. It is one of the most beautiful buildings of London. Inside one can see memorials to great English poets and writers, as well as to scientists and other outstanding English people. For example, William Shakespeare, Charles Dickens, Charles Darwin and Isaac Newton are buried here.

The beautiful Buckingham Palace is the London home of the Queen. It was built in the 18th century and rebuilt in the 19th century by architect John Nash.

Every day the traditional ceremony of Changing the Guards takes place there. The Houses of Parliament is, in fact, the seat of the British Parliament. It was first built in the 12th century and then it changed its appearance many times.

The last rebuilding was made in 1857. The Houses of Parliament has two towers. One of them is the Clock Tower, or Big Ben - a famous London landmark.

England's great architect Sir Christopher Wren is the author of St. Paul's Cathedral, which was built instead of the old cathedral that was destroyed by the Great Fire of 1666. There is a golden ball and cross on the top of the Cathedral that can be seen from far away.

The world-famous Natural History Museum is known for its beautiful galleries and expositions, for example "Human biology", "History of the Earth", "Discovering mammals", and so on. The Museum was opened in April 1881.

Western European paintings created in the period from about 1250 to 1900 are represented in the National Gallery's permanent collection. There are paintings by Italian masters such as Raphael and Veronese, as well as Rembrandt, Rubens and El Greco.

The British Museum was founded in 1753 due to the efforts of three rich men - Sir Robert Cotton, Sir Hans Sloane and King George II. They donated their private collections and libraries to the museum. Now one can see items from ancient Greece, Rome, Egypt, China and Japan in the British Museum.

ЛЗ 2. Historic stages of Britain. Roman Britain.

План

1. The earliest men.

2. The primitive communal system.

3. The Romans in Britain

This chapter covers the period of time from the dawn of civilization in Britain (around 4000 BC) up to the Norman conquest. It is a period that is largely ignored in British history books, apart from the Roman invasion and occupation.

But a lot of interesting things happened, and much remains for the visitor to discover and explore. The subdivisions that we are going to use, to help you make sense of what happened are 4000BC - 1500BC The first farmers, Stonehenge and other relics. Man migrated to Britain whilst it was still joined to the rest of Europe by a land bridge. Stonehenge and Amesbury Ring are the most spectacular monuments from this period, but there are others. Stone Age man possessed great skills, but left behind only his archeology

1500BC - 43 AD Britain as a country of small tribes living in hill fort. As the Stone Age progressed to the Bronze Age and Iron Age, more tools became available. Farming became an economic proposition. Extended families lived in hill forts that they could defend. They could trade with Europe. Then the Romans arrived.

43AD - 410AD Britain under Roman rule. A largely unified country The Romans invaded Britain in force, quelled the odd rebellion and by 122 AD started building Hadrian’s Wall. They set up the network of roads that are still the backbone of Britain today. You can still see parts of Hadrian's Wall, Roman villas and many artifacts

410 AD - 1066 Anglo- Saxon Britain, Viking raids and the Norman invasion. After the Romans left, central rule disappeared. Angles and Saxons invaded from Europe and pushed the Celts to the fringes of Britain. Competing Anglo- Saxon kingdoms and a mighty Viking presence led eventually to the Norman invasion in 1066.

4000 BC to 1500 BC Stone Age man and the first farmers

Stone circles, Neolithic tombs and tools have been found all over the British Isles from the tip of Cornwall in the south to the very north of Scotland. Although stone age artifacts can be found all over Britain, the largest of their construction are found in Wiltshire in southern England.

There are smaller sites from this period of history all over the country - if you are interested you need to stop by a good bookshop and get a specialist publication on the area you are interested in.

The two largest sites are:-

Amesbury

Not just one, but 4 inter-connected monuments. An Avenue of paired stones connects the hanger at Amesbury to a smaller hanger called the Sanctuary, and nearby Silbury Hill (the largest artificial mound in pre-historic Europe)

Stonehenge

Nobody knows what it was built for, perhaps Druid temple or perhaps an astronomical calculator. Work started on it in 3100 BC and it was continuously being built, used and modified until 1100 BC. An amazing period of 2000 years - not many other buildings in the world have been used for as long.

After 1100 BC it fell into disuse, again nobody knows why. The stones on the site were used by the local people as a convenient source for building houses and road making. Even up to 100 years ago, local fanners used the stones from Stonehenge for road building and other construction work. It was given to the nation in 1918, and the government has been responsible for maintaining the monument since then as Britain's only world heritage site. . However there is still a long way to go in presenting the site sympathetically to the visitor.

Stone Age man constructed Stonehenge from massive 50 ton blocks of stone. Some were transported along a 240 mile route from the Welsh mountains The photographs above show that each stone had a mortise and tendon joint, so that when in place the stones stayed in place. The people who made Stonehenge had no metal tools!

One hypothesis for Stonehenge's being there, is that it was a giant astronomical observatory. The sun on midsummer's day rises above the heel stone on the horizon, and other lies concerning the sun and moon and their movements can be found.

Others believe that it was a druid's temple, or shrine. Whatever interpretation one puts on it, it was a massive and sustained feat to construct and maintain for 2000 years. It is a pity that the site has not been better maintained over the years, but you can still get the feel and majesty of the place. It is worth getting one of the more advanced guide books, which go beyond the superficial. A well planned invasion by 40,000 to 50,000 Roman soldiers took place in the summer of 43 AD. A massive force for those days, and the British tribes were no match for them.

Within a year or so the Romans had pushed west to a line from Exeter to Lincoln, and by 60 AD controlled most of Britain south of the Humber.

A revolt with the Iceni tribe under Queen Boudicca nearly managed to dislodge the Romans. But their superior military knowledge prevailed, and after that they had no major uprisings in England. Most of the country was under civil, rather than military rule

They pushed north, and built the network of straight roads across the country, most of which can still be followed today. As they pushed north into Scotland, they decided to build a gigantic wall, Hadrian's Wall, to control the frontier. It was started in 122AD, and runs roughly from Newcastle to Carlisle

You can still see large sections of Hadrian’s Wall today as it snakes across the Northumberland moorland. Also can be seen in museums the mosaics that the Romans used to decorate their villas with. Indeed some villas, like Fishbone, have been excavated. The Romans did expand further into Scotland, building the Antoine Wall across the Lowlands (from Glasgow to Edinburgh). However this was a turf, not stone wall, and little remains. It was started in 142 AD, but abandoned by 163 AD. The country appears to have enjoyed a period of unprecedented peace - "the golden age of the Villa". Around 300 AD the Roman Empire came under sustained attack by the barbarian hordes in central Europe and some troops were withdrawn to help in that area. Northern Britain started to suffer attacks from the Scots and Picts.

But it was until 410 AD that the Roman Emperor Constantine finally removed the whole garrison of Britain to defend the Rhine frontier from attack. The cities of Britain were instructed to look to their own defense. The Romans never returned to Britain. Britain was to slip into a 600 year period of wars and fragmentation. Of Angles and Saxons invading, the Celts being pushed West, and the country under almost continuous Viking attacks.

410 to 1066 Anglo- Saxon Britain. Viking raids. The Norman invasion

The breakdown of Roman law and civilisation was fairly swift after the Roman army departed in 410 AD. To counter the raids from continental pirates, Vikings, Picts and Scots towns would bring in mercenaries from Europe to defend them from attack. These mercenary soldiers were Angles and Saxons from northern Germany.

The deal was that the mercenaries brought their families with them, and got paid with land which they could farm. Eventually the Anglo- Saxon mercenaries realized that they were stronger than their employers and appear to have taken over the running of areas themselves.

There is of course the whole legend of King Arthur that is ascribed to this period. Arthur appears to have been a fictional, rather than historical figure, but that link gives you a complete guide to King Arthur, who he could have been and where he could have lived.

The new Anglo Saxon invaders were not organized centrally, as the Romans had been, or as the Normans would be. They slowly colonized northwards and westwards, pushing the native Celts to the fringes of Britain. Roman Britain was replaced by Anglo Saxon Britain, with the Celtic peoples remaining in Cornwall, Wales and Scotland. The Anglo Saxon areas eventually combined into kingdoms, and by 850 AD the country had three competing kingdoms.

The three kingdoms of Mercia, North Umbria and Essex, not only were competing between themselves, but they were also under sustained attack from Viking raids. The Viking incursions culminated with a "Great Army" landing in East Anglia in 865 AD. It made wide territorial gains, and by 875 the kingdoms of Mercia and North Umbria had succumbed. Only Essex remained as Anglo Saxon. The Vikings attack Essex in 878, and the Saxon king, Alfred (of burning the cakes fame) had to flee to the Somerset marshes.. However he was able to regroup and counter attack. His efforts and those later of his son and grandsons, gradually pushed the Vikings (remember Eric Blood axe) northwards and eventually into the sea. By 955, Alfred’s the Great grandson Eared, ruled over a united England. Government became centralized, and the king had the infrastructure to rule the whole country

Next came another wave of Viking attacks. The net effect was that the English kin, Ethelred the Unready, found his kingdom under attack on all coasts by Norsemen. On Ethelred's death in 1016, the Viking leader Cnut was effectively ruling England. But on Cnut's death, the country collapsed into a number of competing earldoms under a weak king, Edward the Confessor.

The strongest of these earls was Harold, Earl of East Anglia. Through a series of battles and intermarriages, Harold controlled Essex and was in a powerful position. So when Edward the Confessor died in 1066 without a male heir, Harold claimed the throne. His claim was disputed by William, Duke of Normandy, whose claim to the English throne was even more tenuous than Harold's. There were two major influences on English life during this whole period of English history, at opposite ends of the aggression spectrum. One was the coming of Christianity to Britain, brought by Irish monks to places like Lindesfarne in 635, or Iona in Scotland in 563. The church had organized the whole country into diocese, each under a bishop, by about 850. The other was the Viking raider. And it was the Viking raider that paradoxically allowed William to conquer Britain.

When Edward the Confessor died, the Vikings saw a chance to regain a foothold in Britain, and landed an army in Yorkshire in 1066. Harold marched north to take on the Vikings under Harold of Norway and Toasting (King Harold's brother).He defeated the Norsemen near York, but while celebrating his victory, learnt that William of Normandy had landed in southern England. Within 13 days he had marched his army some 240 miles from Yorkshire to Sussex, where the Normans were camped near Hastings. The ensuing Battle of Hastings was won by the Normans who were fresh, and had better archers and cavalry. Harold died with an arrow through his eye. William was crowned William I in London on Christmas Day 1066.

ЛЗ 3. The Anglo-Saxons and the Normans.

План

Natural economy of the British population.

Anglo- Saxons’ conquest.

Danish raids.

Alfred the Great.

Feudalism in England.

The Norman invasion.

43AD - 410AD Britain under Roman rule. A largely unified country The Romans invaded Britain in force, quelled the odd rebellion and by 122 AD started building Hadrians Wall. They set up the network of roads that are still the backbone of Britain today. You can still see parts of Hadrian's Wall, Roman villas and many artifacts.

410 AD - 1066 Anglo Saxon Britain, Viking raids and the Norman invasion After the Romans left central rule disappeared. Angles and Saxons invaded from Europe and pushed the Celts to the fringes of Britain. Competing Anglo Saxon kingdoms and a mighty Viking presence led eventually to the Norman invasion in 1066.

4000 BC to 1500 BC Stone Age Man and the First Farmers

This covers the period from the coming of man to Britain (around 4000 BC) up to the Norman conquest in 1066. The people left no literature, but they did leave many burial chambers, monuments and artifacts. It is believed that Stone Age man migrated to Britain across the land bridge that then joined Britain to the rest of Europe. The rising water levels cut Britain off from Europe and left these peoples to develop separately and largely unmolested by any large outside tribes or armies. Stone circles, Neolithic tombs and tools have been found all over the British Isles from the tip of Cornwall in the south to the very north of Scotland. Although stone age artifacts can be found all over Britain, the largest of their construction are found in Wiltshire in southern England. There are smaller sites from this period of history all over the country - if you are interested you need to stop by a good bookshop and get a specialist publication on the area you are interested in.

The two largest sites are:-

Avebury

Not just one, but 4 inter-connected monuments. An Avenue of paired stones connects the hanger at Avebury to a smaller hanger called the Sanctuary, and nearby Silbury Hill (the largest artificial mound in pre-historic Europe)

Stonehenge

After 1100 BC it fell into disuse, again nobody knows why. The stones on the site were used by the local people as a convenient source for building houses and road making. Even up to 100 years ago, local fanners used the stones from Stonehenge for road building and other construction work. It was given to the nation in 1918, and the government has been responsible for maintaining the monument since then. As Britain's only world heritage site, one can see its importance. However there is still a long way to go in presenting the site sympathetically to the visitor.

The age of Hill Forts and Hill Tribes in Britain 1500 BC to the Roman Invasion in 43 AD

The explanation might be that with the acquisition of the knowledge to make iron tools, then farming and tilling land became a viable proposition. Or perhaps iron weapons made man more aggressive and groups needed protection from marauding bands of armed thugs.

Maiden Castle in Dorset as it is seen today, was typical of a large protected hill fort, with its various ramparts. By around 150 BC there was a substantial trade between Britain and the continent. Involved were raw materials such as tin, silver or gold: finished goods like wine pottery and coins: and even slaves. Julius Caesar made a landing in Britain in 55 BC, but only succeeded in establishing a temporary bridgehead. After another abortive attempt the next year, he sailed away and the Romans left Britain alone for another century, until they landed in force in 43 AD. By the eve of the Roman invasion, Britain was a series of small kingdoms, perhaps 20 of these large enough to have a regional influence, but with no one kingdom holding any real control over any large area of the country.

Britain from 1066 to 1660. Norman Conquest to Cromwell

With the Normans, England became a unified country for the first time since the Romans had left 600 years earlier. The Norman kings consolidated their hold on England, then took control of Wales and Ireland. There followed a long period during the Middle Ages of squabbling over the throne, culminating with the Wars of the Roses, the house of Lancaster against the house of York. The Battle of Bosworth on 1485 saw the end of these wars with the victory of Henry VII.

The rule of the Tudors, including Henry VIII , Mary and Elizabeth I, represented a period of rising English influence on the world - a series of continental wars and the age of the British navy. Colonisation of the Americas began.

The death of Elizabeth left no immediate successor, and the throne of England was offered to the Scottish King James. He was James VI of Scotland and became James I of England. This united England and Scotland for the first time in history though the official Act of parliament, the Act of Union was not passed for another hundred years.

The Stuart kings believed that they had a divine right to govern, and in a world that even then was starting to become democratic, this view caused increasing resentment. The struggle for supremacy between Parliament and the King as to who really ruled the country led to Civil War in 1641. The king, Charles I was defeated, and executed in 1649. Oliver Cromwell became head of state, and Britain continued with this form of government only for a brief period. Cromwell died, his son became head of state, but was not a popular choice. Parliament invited the son of the dead king to re-take the throne. So Britain resumed a monarchy under Charles II in 1660

Wars in France, revolt in England, Civil War in England

After Henry II, English in started running into problems, either with the Barons, the people or from pretenders to the throne.

King John was defeated by the barons and only kept the throne by signing the Magna Carta, which stated that the king was not above the law, that he only ruled by the will of the people, and that if he broke his part of the contract, then the people had the right to overthrow the king. The whole episode amounted to a civil war, and was probably not so cosy. Gontinental wars continued to cost England more money than it could afford. England soon lost all its French possessions apart from Gascony (Bordeaux). Edward ‘s II forays into Europe did not succeed in re-conquering any ground. Between 1370 and 1413, kings were dethroned, peasants revolted and the House of Lancaster seized the throne. Henry's V reign was brief and colourful (1413-22).

The English are a nation for remembering victories and forgetting defeats. Henry’s V victory at Agincourt, thanks to Shakespeare, is well remembered. "Cry God for Harry, England and St George" But the territorial gains that Agincourt brought were soon lost, and even Gascony had fallen. By 1453 only Calais remained as an English foothold in Europe The consequence of the loss of the French territories was that the Royal House of Lancaster became discredited. A series of coups and counter-coups, intrigue and murder gripped the throne. A litany of kings came and went between the battle of St Albans in 1455 and the battle of Bosworth in 1485. The result was a new royal house - the Tudors. Henry VII seized the throne on winning the battle of Bosworth and England was to enter a new period of history

History is written by the victors, and sometimes by Shakespeare. The victors were the Tudors and they wrote of the defeated king's epitaph. Nobody will ever now know whether he did murder the little princes in the tower. He probably was not a hunch back, but his body was flung into an unmarked grave after the battle so we will never know that either.

ЛЗ 4. Crafts and trade in Britain

План

1. Rise of towns.

2. Towns and medieval lords.

3.Artizans’ workshops.

4. Medieval guilds.

The age of Hill Forts and Hill Tribes in Britain 1500 BC to the Roman Invasion in 43 AD

For some unexplained reason, Iron Age man started to change his living habits. They stopped building burial mounds and stone circles, stopped using the ancient sites like Stonehenge. Instead the Iron Age peoples took to farming in permanent fields and to living in protected hill forts. The explanation might be that with the acquisition of the knowledge to make iron tools, then farming and tilling land became a viable proposition. Or perhaps iron weapons made man more aggressive and groups needed protection from marauding bands of armed thugs.

Maiden Castle in Dorset as it is seen today, was typical of a large protected hill fort, with its various ramparts. By around 150 BC there was a substantial trade between Britain and the continent. Involved were raw materials such as tin, silver or gold: finished goods like wine, pottery and coins: and even slaves. Julius Caesar made a landing in Britain in 55 BC, but only succeeded in establishing a temporary bridgehead. After another abortive attempt the next year, he sailed away, and the Romans left Britain alone for another century, until they landed in force in 43 AD. By the eve of the Roman invasion, Britain was a series of small kingdoms, perhaps 20 of these large enough to have a regional influence, but with no one kingdom holding any real control over any large area of the country

410 to 1066 Anglo- Saxon Britain. Viking Raids. The Norman Invasion

The deal was that the mercenaries brought their families with them, and got paid with land which they could farm. Eventually the Anglo- Saxon mercenaries realised that they were stronger than their employers and appear to have taken over the running of areas themselves.

The new Anglo- Saxon invaders were not organised centrally, as the Romans had been, or as the Normans would be. They slowly colonised northwards and westwards, pushing the native Celts to the fringes of Britain. Roman Britain was replaced by Anglo- Saxon Britain, with the Celtic peoples remaining in Cornwall, Wales and Scotland. The Anglo- Saxon areas eventually combined into kingdoms, and by 850 AD the country had three competing kingdoms.

The three kingdoms of Mercia, Northumbria and Wessex, not only were competing between themselves, but they were also under sustained attack from Viking raids. The Viking incursions culminated with a "Great Army" landing in East Anglia in 865 AD. It made wide territorial gains, and by 875 the kingdoms of Mercia and Northumbria had succumbed. Only Wessex remained Anglo- Saxon. The Vikings attack Wessex in 878, and the Saxon king, Alfred (of burning the cakes fame) had to flee to the Somerset marshes.. However he was able to regroup and counterattack. His efforts and those later of his son and grandsons, gradually pushed the Vikings (remember Eric Bloodaxe) northwards and eventually into the sea. By 955, Alfred’s the Great grandson Ethelred, ruled over a united England. Government became centralised, and the king had the infrastructure to rule the whole country.

Britain before 1066

But lot of interesting things happened, and much remains for the visitor to discover and explore. The sub divisions that we are going to use, to help you make sense of what happened are 4000BC - 1500BC The first farmers, Stonehenge and other relics Man migrated to Britain whilst it was still joined to the rest of Europe by a land bridge. Stonehenge and Avebury Ring are the most spectacular monuments from this period, but there are others. Stone Age man possessed great skills, but left behind only his archeology.

ЛЗ 5. State structure. The economy of the UK.

План

1. The legislative, executive and judiciary branches of power.

2. The two chambers, the Cabinets.

3. Political parties.

4. Britain and the Commonwealth. Britain and the European Community.

Great Britain is a constitutional monarchy. This means that it has a monarch as its Head of the State. The monarch reigns with the support of Parliament. The powers of the monarch are not defined precisely. Everything today is done in the Queen's name. It is her government, her armed forces, her law courts and so on. She appoints all the Ministers, including the Prime Minister. Everything is done however on the advice of the elected Government, and the monarch takes no part in the decision-making process.

Once the British Empire comprised a large number of countries ruled by Britain all over the world. The process of de-colonization began in 1947 with the independence of India, Pakistan and Ceylon. Now there is no Empire and only few small islands belong to Britain. In 1997 the last colony, Hong Kong, was given to China. But the British ruling classes tried not to lose influence over the former colonies of the British Empire. An association of former members of the British Empire and Britain was founded in 1949. It is called the Commonwealth . It includes many countries such as Ireland, Burma, the Sudan, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and others. The Queen of Great Britain is also the Head of the Commonwealth, and also the Queen of Canada, Australia, New Zealand...

The British Constitution,

The British Constitution is to a large extent a product of many historical events and has thus evolved over many centuries. Unlike the constitutions of most other countries, it is not set out in any single document. Instead it is made up of statute law, common law and conventions. The constitution can be change by Act of Parliament, or by general agreement to alter a convention.

The Monarchy in Britain.

When the Queen was born on 21 April 1926, her grandfather, King George V, was on the throne and her uncle was his heir. The death of her grandfather and the abdication of her uncle (King Edward VIII) brought her father to the throne in 1936 as King George VI. Elizabeth II came to the throne an 6 February 1952 and was crowned on 2 June 1953. Since then she made many trips to different countries and to the UK also. The Queen is very rich, as are others members of the royal family. In addition, the government pays for her expenses as Head of the State, for a royal yacht, train and aircraft as well as for the upkeep of several palaces. The Queen's image appears on stamps, notes and coins.

The Powers of Parliament

The three elements, which make up Parliament -the Queen, the House of Lords and the elected House of Commons -, are based on different principles. They meet together only on occasions of symbolic significance such as the State Opening of Parliament, when the Commons are invited by the Queen to the House of Lords.

Parliament consists of two chambers known as the House of Lords and the House of Commons. Parliament and the monarch have different roles in the government of the country, and they only meet together on symbolic occasions such as coronation of a new monarch or the opening of Parliament. In reality, the House of Commons is the only one of the three which is true power. It is here that new bills are introduced and debated. If the majority of the members aren't in favour of a bill it goes to the House of Lords to be debated and finally to the monarch to be signed. Only than it becomes law. Although a bill must be supported by all three bodies, the House of Lords only has limited powers, and the monarch hasn't refused to sign one.

The Functions of Parliament

The main functions of Parliament are: to pass laws; to provide, by voting taxation, the means of carrying on the work of government; to scrutinise government policy and administration; to debate the major issues of the day. In carrying out these functions Parliament helps to bring the relevant facts and issues before the electorate. By custom, Parliament is also informed before all-important international treaties and agreements are ratified.

The Parliament has a maximum duration of five years, but in practice general elections are usually held before the end of this term. Parliament is dissolved and rights for a general election are ordered by the Queen on the advice of the Prime Minister. The life of a Parliament is divided into sessions. Each usually lasts for one year - normally beginning and ending in October or November. The adverse number of "sitting" days in a session is about 168 in the House of Commons and about 150 in the House of Lords. At the start of each session the Queen's speech to Parliament outlines the Government's policies and proposed legislative programme.

The Political Party System

The present political system depends upon the existence of organised political parties, each of which presents its policies to the electorate for approval. The parties are not registered or formally recognised in law, but in practice most candidates in elections, and almost all winning candidates, belong to one of the main parties.

For the last 150 years there were only 2 parties: the Conservative Party and the Labour Party. A new party - the Liberal Democrats - was formed in 1988. Social Democratic Party is also the new one founded in 1981. Other- parties include two nationalist parties, Plaid Cymru (founded in Wales in 1925) and the Scottish National Party (founded in 1934).

The effectiveness of the party system in Parliament rests largely on relationship between the Government and the Opposition parties. Depending on the relative strengths of the parties in the House of Commons, the Opposition may seek to overthrow the Government by defeating it in a vote on a "matter of confidence". In general, however, its aims are to contribute to the formation of policy and legislation by constructive criticism; to oppose government proposal - it considers objectionable; to seek amendments to government bills; and to put forward its own policies in order to improve its chances of winning the next general election.

Because of the electoral method in use, only two major parties obtain seats in the House of Commons. People belonging to smaller political parties join one of the larger parties and work from within to make their influence felt. The exception to this are members of the Scottish National and Welsh Nationalist Parties, who, because their influence votes are concentrated in specific geographical areas, can manage to win seats although their total support is relatively small.

Her Majesty's Government: Prime Minister, the Cabinet.

Her Majesty's Government is the body of ministers responsible for the administration of national affairs. The Prime Minister is appointed by the Queen, and all other ministers are appointed by the Queen on the recommendation of the Prime Minister. Most ministers are members of the Commons, although the

Government is also fully represented by ministers in the Lords. The composition of governments can vary both in the number of ministers and in the titles of some offices. New ministerial offices may be created, others may be abolished and functions may be transferred from one minister to another.

The Prime Minister is also, by tradition, First Lord of the Treasury and Minister for the Civil Service. The Prime Minister's unique position of authority derives from majority support in the House of Commons and from the power to appoint and dismiss ministers. By modern convention, the Prime Minister always sits in the House of Commons. The Prime Minister presides over the Cabinet, is responsible for the allocation of functions among ministers and informs the Queen at regular meetings of the general business of the Government. The Prime Minister's Office is situated at 11 Downing Street.

The Cabinet is composed of about 20 ministers chosen by the Prime Minister. The functions of the Cabinet are initiating and deciding on policy, the supreme control of government and the co-ordination of government departments. The exercise of these functions is vitally affected by the fact that the Cabinet is a group of party representatives, depending upon majority support in the House of Commons. The Cabinet meets in private and its proceedings are confidential. Its members are bound by their oath as Privy Counsellors not to disclose information about its proceedings, although after 30 years Cabinet papers may be made available for inspection.

So Great Britain is the constitutional monarchy. Monarch is the Head of the State. But Queen or King rules with the support of the parliament. And practically monarch have no real political power. The main political decisions are made by the Parliament and Cabinet. And the House of Commons are more powerful.

ЛЗ. 6. Outstanding public figures in Britain

План

1. Francis Drake; Isaac Newton; James Cook; James Watt; William Caxton; admiral H. Nelson; Ernest Rutherford.

2. British writers; poets; prime- ministers; monarchs; actors; playwrights.

If you stand in Trafalgar Square with your back to Nelson's Column, you will see a wide horizontal front in a classical style. It is the National Gallery. It has been in this building since 1838 which was built as the

National Gallery to house the collection of Old Masters Paintings (38 paintings) offered to the nation by an English Private collector, Sir George Beamount.

Today the picture galleries of the National Gallery of Art exhibit works of all the European schools of painting, which existed between the 13th and 19th centuries. The most famous works among them are 'Venus and Cupid' by Diego Velazquez, 'Adoration of the Shepherds' by Nicolas Poussin, 'A Woman Bathing' by Harmensz van Rijn Rembrandt, 'Lord Heathfield' by Joshua Reynolds, 'Mrs Siddons' by Thomas Gainsborough and many others.

In 1897 the Tate Gallery was opened to house the more modern British paintings. Most of the National Gallery collections of British paintings were transferred to the Tate, and only a small collection of a few masterpieces is now exhibited at Trafalgar Square. Thus, the Tate Gallery exhibits a number of interesting collections of British and foreign modern painting and also modern sculpture.

The collection of Turner's paintings at the Tate includes about 300 oils and 19,000 water -colours and drawings. He was the most traditional artist of his time as well as the most original: traditional in his devotion to the Old Masters and original in his creation of new styles. It is sometimes said that he prepared the way for the Impressionists.

The modern collection includes the paintings of Henri Matisse and Pablo Picasso, Marc Chagall and Salvador Dali, Francis Bacon and Graham Sutherland, Peter Blake and Richard Hamilton, the chief pioneers of pop art in Great Britain. Henry Moore is a famous British sculptor whose works are exhibited at the Tate too. One of the sculptor's masterpieces - the 'Reclining Figure' - is at fees Headquarters of UNESCO in Paris.

The 19th century acting became more and more naturalistic. Like in Shakespeare's time, the best actors understood the importance of.the teamwork of the company. One of the most famous actors of that time was Henry Irving. He was the first actor to be knighted. By the 1920s naturalistic acting reached a peak in the performance of Sir Gerald Du Maurier. He hardly appeared to be acting at all.

At present most acting still continues to be naturalistic. Designers make the settings as realistic as possible. Modern producers and directors Peter Hall, Peter Brook and others are trying out new styles of acting. Some go back to Greek methods, with a revival of the chorus; others are making use of the audience in helping to interpret the play.

British Drama Theatre Today

Britain is now one of the world's major theatres centres. Many British actors and actresses are known all over the world. They are Dame Peggy Ashcroft, Glenda Jackson, Laurence Olivier, John Gielgud and others.

Drama is so popular with people of all ages that there are several thousand amateur dramatic societies. Now Britain has about 300 professional theatres. Some of them are privately owned. The tickets are not hard to get, but they are very expensive. Regular seasons of opera and ballet are given at the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden in London. The National Theatre stages modern and classical plays, the Royal Shakespeare Company produces plays mainly by Shakespeare and his contemporaries when it performs in Stratford-on-Avon, and modern plays in its two auditoria in the City's Barbican Centre. Shakespeare's Globe Playhouse, about which you have probably read, was reconstructed on its original site. Many other cities and large towns have at least one theatre.

There are many theatres and theatre companies for young people: the National Youth Theatre and the Young Vic Company in London, the Scottish Youth Theatre in Edinburgh. The National Youth Theatre, which stages classical plays mainly by Shakespeare and modern plays about youth, was on tour in Russian in 1989. The theatre-goers warmly received the production of Thomas Stearns Eliot's play 'Murder in the Cathedral'. Many famous English actors started their careers in the National Youth Theatre. Among them , Timothy Dalton, the actor who did the part of Rochester in ' Jane Eyre' shown on TV in our country.

ЛЗ 7. Districts and cities in the UK.

План

1.Territorial division into counties.

2. The greatest ports and industrial cities.

3. Goods produced in the UK.

Birmingham is one of Britain's most exciting modern cities. Described as "a butterfly emerging from a concrete chrysalis " it has been given a thorough make-over by a team of award-winning architects. Gone is the dreary urban landscape and concrete carbuncles, in their place are futuristic shopping centres, leafy open spaces and fashionable canal side developments. Britain's most maligned city is sexing itself up!

World War II left Birmingham devastated and destroyed much of its historic centre. For years the city's biggest claim to fame was the invention of the 'balti an exceedingly spicy faux Indian dish. Now a massive regeneration project has exposed the diverse and dynamic character of the city, the former US President Bill Clinton to label it "an extraordinary jewel of a city. "

Birmingham bustles with cosmopolitan energy and has a long history of invention and integration. One of the few buildings spared by WW II is the Italiante Council House, which boasts a domed facade and an intricate doortop mosaic depicting industry and municipality. Enjoy the view over the city's most attractive areas including the newly-modelled and pedestrianised Victoria Square.

Once you've got your bearings take a cultural stroll around some of the city's

glittering art galleries. The Museums and Art Gallery houses the world's finest collection of pre-Raphaelite art, while the Ikon Gallery's outstanding modern art works will thrill and enthrall. Another up and coming artistic attraction is the Barber Institute of Fine Arts. While away an afternoon exploring their diverse mixture of drawings, paintings and sculpture from the 13th to the 20th centuries including pieces by Rubens, Turner, Gainsborough, Monet and Van Gogh.

Birmingham is also a Mecca for chocoholics and no visit to the city would be complete without a stop-off at Cadbury World. Stuff yourself with samples as they come fresh off the conveyor belt, learn the history of chocolate and visit nearby Bourneville village, one of the world's first garden suburbs.

Brighton

Brighton is possibly Britain's trendiest town. From the exotic Royal Pavilion to the fashionable clubs, stylish clothes shops, bohemian coffee shops, historic piers and thriving markets and a vibrant gay scene - Brighton has it all. This is tourism at its most serious and fun. Brighton and its western extension Hove offer a twin-bill of holiday pleasures, making a lively and cosmopolitan resort, the place is constantly changing.

The city's eccentric character is reflected most prominently in the Royal Pavilion. Built in the early 1800's as a seaside residence for George, Prince of Wales, the Prince Regent. He employed his favourite architect John Nash to take an old farmhouse and turn it into a feast of Indian, Chinese and Gothic forms. Drawing on the Taj Mahal as inspiration, Nash created a wonderful Pavilion of endless pagodas, balconies and decorative figures.

Palace Pier is Brighton's most famous landmark and is visited by 3.5 million people each

year. This cast-iron seaside favourite juts imposingly |out into the sea, offering traditional saucy seaside entertainment in the shape of funfairs, fish and chips, candyfloss and casinos. Facing it is the historic West Pier. Built in 1866 it is the UK's finest seaside pier and the only one to be Grade 1 listed. Closed since 1975, it has survived the ravages of the elements and a recent destructive fire and is on the brink of a major redevelopment and will remain an essential part of the city's famous seafront.

Between the two piers runs the new Riviera style beachfront area. Nestling under small Victorian arches lies the Artists' Quarter which houses twenty studio spaces. Further down fishermen bustle about mending nets and selling fresh fish in their own quarter, which also boasts an award-winning Fishing Museum. The new performance arena, the Ellipse, is the place to watch free theatre, music and dance events. Behind the area, elegant Regency squares and terraces look out over the picturesque promenade.

Brighton and Hove is one of Britain's creative centres and is bursting with a vast selection of galleries, theaters and art centres celebrating different aspects of high and contemporary culture. Visit the Gardener Arts Centre located on the leafy Sussex University campus which hosts an eclectic programme of visual arts, films, comedy, music and workshops. The Komedia Theatre and cafe is a great place to catch some comedy, take in a show or just drink people and soak up the sights and sounds of this remarkable city.

A vibrant clubbing and music scene draws in clubbers from London and from the Continent. By night the seafront transforms from a family-friendly arena into a seething mass of trendy young things intent on a night of abandon in local hotspots such as the legendary Beach and Zap clubs.

Brighton and Hove is one of the most vibrant and visitor-friendly seaside resorts in Britain. It combines a strong historical tradition with strong artistic energy and a pulsating party vibe. It's fun for the whole family, but it may be worth noting that three quarters of the visitors staying overnight come without children.

Cardiff

Cardiff is the jewel in the Welsh crown. Known as Europe's youngest capital it buzzes with youthful energy and is one of Britain's most cosmopolitan cities. With massive redevelopment projects dominating the skyline and the city established as the seat of the new Welsh National Assembly, Cardiff is on an upwards curve and now is the time to visit.

Set against a seaside backdrop, Cardiff was once an industrial powerhouse, exporting vast amounts of coal and steel from the huge plants in South Wales. When these industries waned towards the end of the twentieth century the city's economic prospects seemed bleak. But a winning combination of government intervention and European Union encouragement has wooed employers to the city and successfully filled the economic void. A statistic that illustrates this massive growth rate is that available hotel bed spaces have increased by over 40% in the past five years.

Only named the capital in 1955 Cardiff benefits from a friendly, small town vibe which makes it a very pleasant and relaxing place to visit. The historic castle forms the city's centrepiece and is surrounded by seven charming Victorian shopping arcades filled with a mixture of high street stores and local gems. Castle Welsh Crafts lies directly opposite the Castle and is the ideal place to pick up some jewellery crafted from famous Welsh gold.

Cardiff Bay is fast gaining a reputation as the city's glamour hotspot with a wealth of restaurants, bars, nightclubs and swanky accommodation developments springing up everywhere. Celebrities such as Charlotte Church have made their homes there and the area buzzes at all hours of the night and day. The lack of integration between the Bay and the centre creates a separate town feel and boosts the exclusive vibe of the area.

After a hard day's sightseeing change into your glad-rags for a night exploring Cardiff s lively nightlife, with over 300 pubs to choose from there is something to

suit all tastes. Line your stomach with a fantastic meal at one of the city's many fine restaurants and then dance it all off on the dancefloor of such notable clubs as Clwb Ifor Bach which is famed for its Friday drum and bass nights. A trip to Cardiff is guaranteed to be diwrnodl'r Brenin (truly memorable).

London

There were people living on the banks of the Thames long before the Roman invasion of 43 AD, but it was their arrival which transformed London into a major trading centre. Since then, despite disasters such as the Plague,-the Great Fire and the Blitz, subsequent invasions and conquests by the Saxons, Vikings and Normans, London has continued to expand at an exponential rate in-terms of population, economics, diversity and culture.

Visitors will be immediately struck by the sheer enormity of the city. Only from the dramatic peak of Hampstead's Parliament Hill or from one of the London Eye's transparent pods is it possible to grasp quite how far and wide the city stretches. Eight million people now live in what is - by a long way -Europe's largest metropolis. Because of this, visitors can't expect to get to know the city well - those of us who live here are still lost, when lured away from our usual stomping grounds - but they can expect to feel at home in the city, thanks to the sheer diversity and wealth of opportunities and attractions. From the City of London - the original Roman settlement and now one of the world's foremost financial centres – the capital has expanded rampantly, swallowing up countless smaller towns on its endless journey outwards. Many of these towns still retain a distinct identity, which is what gives London so many unique facets. From the bustling streets of the West End, through the subversive sensationalism of Soho, down to the Afro-Caribbean flavours of Brixton, up the river to the ancient alleyways of the Square Mile, east to the lively, colourful markets around Liverpool Street, through the chic heartland of Islington and up to the picturesque 'villages' of Hampstead and Highgate - London is anything and everything.

Boasting communities from all over the world, some who've been here five hundred years, others five minutes, London's ever-changing landscape is balanced by its firm history and strong traditions. A trip to some of the outlying areas can be a great way of better understanding the space as a whole. From the stately elegance of Buckingham Palace to the foreboding turrets of the Tower of London, the Gothic facades of the Houses of Parliament to the simple upward sweep of Nelson's Column, the smooth, graceful dome of St Paul's Cathedral to the burnished copper brickwork of Westminster Cathedral, London is bursting with instantly recognisable historical, architectural and institutional landmarks all of which you can experience first-hand.

Still the epicentre of British politics, despite devolution of power in recent years, London has also long been a centre of excellence for education, arts and culture. It is now home to some fascinating, truly impressive public museums and galleries which, since 2001, have all been free to get in. Inspect the dinosaur skeletons at the Natural History Museum, get to grips with conflicts of the 20th century at the Imperial War Museum, or see some genuinely forward-thinking sculpture at the Tate Modern. London is also speckled with thousands of smaller commercial cultural gems which take a bit more hunting out. The Photographers' Gallery near Leicester Square, Sir John Soane's museum in Holborn and the White Cube gallery in east London are just a few of the secret, smaller cultural treats on offer to those keen to seek them out.

ЛЗ 8. Cultural Profile of Great Britain

План

1. Music festivals

2. Eminent dancers, producers, singers, actors

Festivals of Music and Drama

Post-war years have witnessed a significant increase in the number of festivals of music and drama though not enough has been done to involve the general public in these activities. Some of the festivals," however, are widely popular and it is with these that the book deals. A number of other festivals of music and drama, less well known but sufficiently important to be mentioned, are also included in the list below.

The Bath Festival

The number of festivals held in Britain every summer goes on and on increasing but few are as well established or highly thought of, particularly in the wider European scene, as the Bath Festival.

In June when the city is at its most beautiful the festival attracts some of the finest musicians in the world to Bath, as well as thousands of visitors from Britain and abroad.

Under the artistic direction of Sir Michael Tippet, composer, conductor and one of the greatest minds in British music today, the festival presents a programme of orchestral and choral concerts, song and instrumental recitals and chamber music, so well suited to the beautiful 18th- century halls of Bath. The range of music included is wide and young performers are given opportunities to work with some of the leading names in their fields.

But the festival is not all music. The programme usually includes lectures and exhibitions, sometimes ballet, opera, drama, or films, as well as tours of Bath and the surrounding area and houses not normally open to the public, often a costume ball, maybe poetry - the variety is endless.

Much goes on in the city at festival time and many organisations produce a bewildering complexity of events to cater for all tastes from bicycle races and beer gardens to a mammoth one day festival of folk and blues.

The Chichester Theatre Festival

The fame achieved by the Edinburgh Festival, to say nothing of the large number of visitors that it brings every year to the Scottish capital, has encouraged many other towns in Britain to organise similar festivals. Those at Bath, Cheltenham and Aldeburgh have all become considerable artistic successes, even if they haven't brought as much business to these towns as the local shopkeepers had hoped for.

The latest festival town to join the list is Chichester, which has earned a great deal of prestige by building, in record time, a large theatre holding over one thousand five hundred people. Here will be held each year a theatre festival in which many stars from the London stage will be eager to participate.

The first season scored a considerable success. The repertoire consisted of an old English comedy, a sixteenth- century tragedy and a production of Chekhov's "Uncle Vanya" in which every part was taken by a top star.

But the chief interest of the Chichester Festival is the new theatre itself, which has an apron stage. Most of you will know that the apron stage, which was common in Shakespeare's day, projects out into the auditorium. With an apron stage there is no proscenium arch, or stage sets of the kind we are used to in the modern theatre. This calls for the use of an entirely different technique on the part both of the players, who have their audience on three sides of them instead of just in front, and the producer. The players must make proper use of their voices, which, to a generation accustomed to mumbling into microphones, is not easy.

Chichester itself is a small country town in the heart of Sussex, and the theatre stands on the edge of a beautiful park. Unlike Glyndebourne where the entire audience wears evening dress, the clothes worn by the audience at Chichester are much less formal; but as the festival is held in the summer the pretty frocks of the women make an attractive picture as they stand and gossip outside the theatre during the intervals, or snatch hasty refreshments from their cars in the park.

ЛЗ 9. An overview of American Geography

План

1. Country facts

2. climate

3. environment

The vast and varied expanse of the United States of America stretches from the heavily industrialized, metropolitan Atlantic seaboard, across the rich flat farms of the central plains, over the majestic Rocky Mountains to the fertile, densely populated west coast, then halfway across the Pacific to the semi-tropical island-state of Hawaii. Without Hawaii and Alaska the continental U.S. measures 4,505 kilometers from its Atlantic to Pacific coasts, 2,574 kilometers from Canada to Mexico; it covers 9,372,614 square kilometers. In area, it is the fourth largest nation in the world (behind the Soviet Union, Canada and China).

The sparsely settled far-northern state of Alaska, is the largest of America's 50 states with a land mass of 1,477,887 square kilometers. Alaska is nearly 400 times the size of Rhode Island, which is the smallest state; but Alaska, with 521,000 people, has half the population of Rhode Island.

Airlines service 817 cities throughout the country. A flight from New York to San Francisco takes five-and-a-half hours. Train service is also available: The most frequent service is between Washington, D.C., New York and Boston in the East; St. Louis, Chicago and Milwaukee in the Midwest; and San Diego, Los Angeles and San Francisco in the West. A coast-to-coast trip by train takes three days. The major means of intercity transportation is by automobile. Motorists can travel over an interstate highway system of 88,641 kilometers, which feeds into another 6,365,590 kilometers of roads and highways connecting virtually every city and town in the United States. A trip by automobile from coast to coast takes five to six days.

America is a land of physical contrasts, including the weather. The southern parts of Florida, Texas, California, and the entire state of Hawaii, have warm temperatures year round; most of the United States is in the temperate zone, with four distinct seasons and varying numbers of hot and cold days each season, while the northern tier of states and Alaska have extremely cold winters. The land varies from heavy forests covering 2,104 million hectares, to barren deserts, from high-peaked mountains (McKinley in Alaska rises to 6193.5 meters), to deep canyons (Death Valley in California is 1,064 meters below sea level).

The United States is also a land of bountiful rivers and lakes. The northern state of Minnesota, for example, is known as the land jf 10,000 lakes. The broad Mississippi River system, of great historic and economic importance to the U.S., runs 5,969 kilometers from Canada into the Gulf of Mexico—the world's third longest river after the Nile and the Amazon. A canal south of Chicago joins one of the tributaries of the Mississippi to the five Great Lakes—making it the world's largest inland water transportation route and the biggest body of fresh water in the world. ThЕ St. Lawrence Seaway, which the U.S. shares with Canada, connects the Great Lakes with the Atlantic Ocean, allowing seagoing vessels to travel 3,861 kilometers inland, as far as Duluth, Minnesota, during the spring, summer and fall shipping season.

America's early settlers were attracted by le fertile land along the Atlantic coast in the southeast and inland beyond the eastern Appalachian mountains. As America expanded westward, so did its farmers and ranchers, cultivating the grasslands of the Great Plains, and finally the fertile valleys of the Pacific Coast. Today, with 1,214 million hectares under cultivation, American fanners plant spring wheat on the cold western plains; raise corn, wheat and fine beef cattle in the Midwest, and rice in the damp heat of Louisiana. Florida and California are famous for their vegetable and fruit production, and the cool, rainy northwestern states are known for apples, pears, berries and vegetables.

Underground, a wealth of minerals provides a solid base for American industry. History has glamorized the gold rushes to California and Alaska and the silver finds in Nevada. Yet America's yearly production of gold ($2,831,000,000) is far exceeded by the value of its petroleum, natural gas, clays, phosphates, lead and iron, even its output of sand, cement and stone for construction. Production value of crude oil alone is about 4.2 thousand million annually, pumped from petroleum reserves that range from the Gulf of Mexico to Alaska's North Slope.

ЛЗ 10. The U.S. History: from prehistoric times to present

План

1 Prehistory

2 Pre-Columbian era

3 Colonial period

4 18th century

5 American Revolution

6 19th century

7 20th century

The history of the United States as covered in American schools and universities typically begins with either Christopher Columbus's 1492 voyage to the Americas or with the prehistory of the Native peoples, with the latter approach having become increasingly common in recent decades

Indigenous populations lived in what is now the United States before European colonists began to arrive, mostly from England, after 1600. By the 1770s, thirteen British colonies contained two and a half million people. They were prosperous and growing rapidly, and had developed their own autonomous political and legal systems. The British Parliament asserted its authority over these colonies by imposing new taxes, which the Americans insisted were unconstitutional because they were not represented in Parliament. Growing conflicts turned into full-fledged war beginning in April 1775. On July 4, 1776, the colonies declared independence under a document written by Thomas Jefferson from the Kingdom of Great Britain and became the United States of America.

With large-scale military and financial support from France and military leadership by General George Washington, the Patriots won the Revolutionary War and peace came in 1783. During and after the war, the 13 states were united under a weak federal government established by the Articles of Confederation. When these proved unworkable, a new Constitution was adopted in 1789; it remains the basis of the United States federal government, and later included a Bill of Rights. With Washington as the nation's first president and Alexander Hamilton his chief financial advisor, a strong national government was created. In the First Party System, two national political parties grew up to support or oppose Hamiltonian policies. When Thomas Jefferson became president he purchased the Louisiana Territory from France, doubling the size of American territorial holdings. A second and last war with Britain was fought in 1812. The main result of that war was the end of European support for Native American (Indian) attacks on western settlers.

Under the sponsorship of the Jeffersonian Democrats and the Jacksonian Democrats, the nation expanded to the Louisiana purchase and all the way to California and Oregon, and a quest for inexpensive land for Yeoman farmers and slave owners who promoted democracy and expansion, at the cost of violence and a disdain for European culture. The expansion, under the rubric of Manifest Destiny was a rejection of the advice of Whigs who wanted to deepen and modernize the economy and society rather than merely expand the geography. Slavery was abolished in all states north of the Mason–Dixon line by 1804, but it flourished in the Southern states largely due to heavy demand for cotton.

After 1820, a series of compromises postponed a showdown on the issue of slavery. In the mid-1850s, the new Republican power took political control of the North and promised to stop the expansion of slavery, which implied its eventual death. The 1860 presidential election of Republican Abraham Lincoln triggered the secession of eleven slave states to found the Confederacy in 1861. The American Civil War (1861-1865) was the centerpiece of American history. After four years of bloody warfare, the Union, under President Lincoln and Ulysses S. Grant as the commanding general defeated the South with Robert E. Lee as its foremost general The Union was saved, slavery was abolished, and the South was impoverished. In the Reconstruction era (1863–77), the United States ended slavery and extended legal and voting rights to the Freedmen. The national government was much stronger, and because of the Fourteenth Amendment it now had the explicit duty to protect individual rights. Reconstruction ended in 1877 and from the 1890s to the 1960s the system of Jim Crow kept blacks in segregation. The entire South remained poor until the 2nd half of the 20th century, while the North and West grew rapidly and prospered. The per capita income in the South remained under half the national average until after 1945.

The United States became the world's leading industrial power at the turn of the 20th century due to an outburst of entrepreneurship in the North and the arrival of millions of immigrant workers and farmers from Europe. The national railroad network was completed, and large scale mining and factories industrialized the Northeast and Midwest. Middle class dissatisfaction with corruption, inefficiency and traditional politics stimulated the Progressive movement from the 1890s to 1920s, which pushed for reforms and allowed for women's suffrage and the prohibition of alcohol. Initially neutral in World War I, the U.S. declared war on Germany in 1917, and funded the Allied victory the following year. After a prosperous decade in the 1920s, the Wall Street Crash of 1929 marked the onset of the decade-long world-wide Great Depression. Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt became president and implemented his New Deal programs for relief, recovery, and reform, defining modern American liberalism. After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, the United States entered World War II alongside the Allies and helped defeat Nazi Germany in Europe and, with the detonation of newly invented atomic bombs, Japan in the Far East.

The United States and the Soviet Union emerged as opposing superpowers after World War II and began the Cold War, confronting one another indirectly in the arms race and Space Race. U.S. foreign policy during the Cold War was built around the containment of Communism, and the country participated in the wars in Korea and Vietnam to achieve this goal. Liberalism won numerous victories in the days of the New Deal and again in the mid-1960s, especially in the success of the civil rights movement, but conservatism made its comeback in the 1980s under Ronald Reagan. The Cold War ended when the Soviet Union dissolved in 1991, leaving the United States the only superpower. As the 21st century began, international conflict centered around the Middle East and heightened significantly following the September 11 attacks and the War on Terrorism that was subsequently declared. The United States experienced its worst economic recession since World War II in the late 2000s, which has been followed by slower than usual rates of economic growth during the 2010s.

ЛЗ 11. Political system of the USA

План

1 Political culture

2 State government

3 Local government

The United States of America is a federal republic consisting of 50 states. Each state has its own government. In some ways the United States is like 50 small countries.

The government of the USA act according to the Constitution which was signed by the first thirteen representatives of thirteen original American states in 1787. The document was written in 1787 and since that time twenty six Amendments have been added. The first ten Amendments were simply rights or the Bill of rights. According to the Constitution the USA is a republic. So, the officials of any rank are elected by US citizens. Every citizen has rights which can not be violated.

The Constitution proclaims a federal system of government which keeps both the states and the federal power from getting too much power. It means that the federal government is given certain powers, for example, to make peace or war, to issue money and to regulate the trade and so on.

The federal power is located in Washington, D.C. It is based on legislative, executive and juridical branches of power.

The legislative power is vested in Congress, which consists of two houses: the Senate and the House of Representatives, There are 435 members in the House of Representatives and 100 senators in Congress. Each state elects two members for the Senate.

The executive branch is headed by the President who is assisted by the Vice President. The President enforces federal laws, serves as commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces. The President can veto a bill unless Congress by a two-thirds vote shall overrule him. The Vice President, elected from the same political party as the President, acts as chairman of the Senate, and in the event of the death of the President, assumes the Presidency. The President of the USA is chosen in nationwide elections every 4 years together with the Vice.-President. The President can not be elected for more than two terms. The Cabinet is made up of Department Secretaries. The most important of them is the Secretary of State, who deals with foreign affairs.

The judicial branch is made up of Federal District Courts, 11 Federal Courts and the Supreme Court. Federal judges are appointed by the President for life.

Federal courts decide cases involving federal law, conflicts between citizens of different states.

Constitution has been amended twenty six times. The Bill of Rights guarantees individual liberties: freedom of word,» religion and so on. Later amendments abolished slavery, granted the vote to women and colour people and allowed citizens to vote at the age of 18.

ЛЗ 12. U.S. Economy

План

1 Overview

2 Employment

3 Income distribution

The American economy is a free enterprise system that has emerged from the labors of millions of American workers; from the wants that tens of millions of consumers have expressed in the marketplace; from the efforts of thousands of private business people; and from the activities of government officials at all levels who have undertaken the tasks that individual Americans cannot do.

The nation's income and productivity have risen enormously over the past 70 years. In this period, the money for personal consumption tripled in real purchasing power. The gross national product per capita quadrupled, reflecting growth in worker productivity.

Together, all sectors of the American economy produce almost $4,000 million dollars worth of goods and services annually, and each year they turn out almost $ 190,000 million more. The consumption of these goods and services is spread widely. Most Americans consider themselves members of the middle economic class, and relatively few are extremely wealthy or extremely poor. According to U.S. Census Bureau figures, 9.6 percent of all American families make more than $50,000 a year, and 7.7 percent of all American families have incomes less than $10,000; the median annual income for all American families is about $28,906.

Americans live in a variety of housing that includes single detached homes (62 percent) with a median cost of $112,500. They also live in apartments, town-houses and mobile homes. Three-fourths of all married couples own their own homes. The size of all dwelling units has increased in living space. The median number of rooms occupied in each dwelling unit has increased from 4.9 rooms per unit in 1960 to 5.2 rooms today, despite the shrinking family size. About 3.6 percent of all Americans live in public (government-supplied or subsidized) housing.

The government plays an important role in the economy, as is the case in all countries. From the founding of the Republic, the U.S. federal government has strongly supported the development of transportation. It financed the first major canal system and later subsidized the railroads and the airlines. It has developed river valleys and built dams and power stations. It has extended electricity and scientific advice to farmers, and assures them a minimum price for their basic crops. It checks the purity of food and drugs, insures bank deposits and guarantees loans.

America's individual 50 states have been most active in building roads and in the field of education. Each year the states spend some $33.31 million on schools and provide a free public education for 29.1 million primary-school pupils and 11.4 million youth in secondary schools. (In addition, 8.3 million youths attend private primary and secondary schools.) Approximately 60 percent of the students who graduate from secondary schools attend colleges and universities, 77.2 percent of which are supported by public funds. The U.S. leads the world in the percentage of the population that receives a higher education. Total enrollment in schools of higher learning is 13.4 million.

Despite the fact that the United States government supports many segments of the nation's economy, economists estimate that the public sector accounts for only one-fifth of American economic activity, with the remainder in private hands. In agriculture, for example, farmers benefit from public education, roads, rural electrification and support prices, but their land is private property to work pretty much as they desire. More than 86.7 percent of America's 208.8 million farms are owned by the people who operate them; the rest are owned by business corporations. With increasingly improved farm machinery, seed and fertilizers, more food is produced each year, although the number of farmers decrease annually. There were 15,669,000 people living on farms in 1960; by 1989 that total had decreased to 4,801,000. Farm output has increased dramatically: just 50 years ago a farmer fed 10 persons; today the average farmer feeds 75. America exports some 440.9 thousand million worth of farm products each year. The United States produces as much as half the world's soybeans and corn for grain, and from 10 to 25 percent of its cotton wheat, tobacco and vegetable oil.

In 1990, 119.55 million Americans were in the labor force, representing 63.0 percent of the population over the age of 16. The labor force has grown especially rapidly since 1955 as a result of the increased number of working women. Women now constitute more than half of America's total work force. The entry of the "baby boom" generation into the job market has also increased the work force. Part-time employment has increased as well – only about 55 percent of all workers have full-rime, full-year jobs – the rest either work part-time, part-year or both. The average American work week was 41 hours in 1989.

American industries have become increasingly more service-oriented. Of 12.6 million new jobs created since 1982, almost 85 percent have been in service industries. Careers in technical, business and health-related fields have particularly experienced employee growth in recent years. Approximately 27 million Americans are employed in selling. Another 19.2 million work in manufacturing and 17.5 million work for federal, state and local governments.

Recently, unemployment in the United States was calculated at about seven percent. The government provides short-term unemployment compensation (from 20 to 39 weeks depending upon economic conditions) to replace wages lost between jobs. About 80 per cent of all wage and salary earners are covered by unemployment insurance. In addition, both the government and private industry provide job training to help unemployed and disadvantaged Americans.

ЛЗ 13. Education in the United States of America

План

1. Peculiarities of the US educational system.

2. Higher education. Harvard and Yale.

3. Elementary and secondary education. Standards.

The US educational system is much decentralized and schools vary greatly from state to state. There are three levels of subsidizing of education: federal, state and local. They subsidize 3-5 per cent on a federal level, around 20 per cent on a state level and 70-80 per cent on a local level.

There are 15,000 school districts which are different in size. A school district is governed by the Board of Education/School Board/School Council which is elected every two years by the residents of the school district. Members of school boards perform their responsibilities on a volunteer basis, that means they do not get any salaries. They are to define the policies for the administration of the school district. Teachers, in turn, decide about the program and approaches of teaching.

Every resident pays a school tax to the school district he/she lives in, no matter he/she has school children or not. School education in the United States is free and parents are free to choose a school for their children. But if parents send their child to a school of another school district they have to pay the sum equivalent to the school tax directly to the school the child goes to.

There are also a lot of private schools, mainly religious, and parents have to pay for them. The cost is $ 5,000 - $ 10,000 a year.

There is no home education in the United States. Each invalid is supposed to attend school. School provides all the necessary conditions for them to study.

The school system structure in the United States looks like this. Children start going to school at the age of five. First they go to eight-year elementary school and then to high school or if they go to five- or six-year elementary school, they then attend three- or four-year middle school, and then high school. Teenagers study at high school four years and graduate from it at the age of eighteen. Members of each grade in high school have special names:

- a ninth grader is called a Freshman,

- a tenth grader - a Sophomore,

- an eleventh grader - a Junior,

- a twelfth grader - a Senior.

The completion of high school is called graduation. In order to graduate, students must accumulate a certain amount of credits during their four years at school. Credits are points given for every subject that is passed successfully. In addition to that, students must successfully complete specific subjects required by the state or local educational authorities, such as US history, English, mathematics and physical education. This may vary from state to state.

Over 60% of school graduates continue their education in two- or four-year colleges or universities. At least 10% of high school students are allowed to finish school at the age of 16.

A school year starts at the beginning of September or at the end of August and ends in late June or early July, just before the Independence Day, and is divided into three terms/trimesters or four quarters. School children have winter and spring breaks for two or three weeks and summer vacation for six up to eight weeks.

There is a great variety of Saturday, Sunday, vocational and other schools. The most popular one is summer school. It is for students who want to get a deeper knowledge in a particular subject, or to skip a year, or just fail their examinations. It lasts six weeks and parents have to pay for it.

Students go to school five days a week. They get to and from school by a school bus. A typical school day in America starts at 7.30 AM with the Pledge of Allegiance in which the US flag and the whole nation is glorified. Then follows the homeroom period during which a homeroom teacher calls the roll and the principal makes his/her announcements over the intercom. Every day students usually have seven periods which last 50-55, sometimes 45 minutes. In some schools there are four periods lasting 90 minutes. There are 2-5 minute passing between periods and a break of 30 minutes for lunch.

American schools today house a large number of students but making friends can be difficult, as the same group of students does not attend all the classes. In order to encourage meeting and knowing a broader population at school, special emphasis is placed on so-called extracurricular activities where interests, rather than academic ability, bring students together.

Extracurricular activities are the many club meetings, music or drama rehearsals, and sport practice sessions that take place in American high school in the afternoon after classes. These meetings are a very important part of high school life, since they are a link between different groups of students who are placed in various academic programs. Students who usually would not meet in the classroom get to know each other in areas of common interest. They give students the opportunity to further their specific interests in various fields and to spend their free time together.

Even though they are not mandatory, many students get involved in different extracurricular activities. Since students spend a lot of time participating in various activities, school becomes the center of social life for students. They not only go to school to study the material presented in class, but they also meet together to socialize and to pursue their interests.

Other important activities in American high school are sports teams. Most schools offer a variety of teams for both boys and girls. American football, basketball and base-ball are played in the majority of schools. In addition, one may find tennis, gymnastics, hockey, swimming, golf, volleyball, cross-country, and track and field teams, depending again on the size and financial resources of the school. Soccer is also growing in popularity.

Usually schools have varsity teams, which complete with other schools and which have very intensive training, and intramural teams, which play other teams within the school itself. In most schools, there is a great deal of competition between students to join the varsity team. There often are schools regulations that make it difficult for new students to join. On the intramural teams most students are welcome to participate.

In many schools girls have fewer possibilities than boys. Smaller schools may not have some of the above-mentioned teams for girls. But a special group of girls and boys play an important part at the football and basketball games. They are called cheerleaders and they lead the crowd in cheers for their team.

In addition to clubs and sports teams, one will find the Student Council and the class officer meetings. Students are elected by their school and classmates to represent them in these bodies and to organize activities for their school.

U.S. colleges and universities offer a vide variety of programs ranging from highly academic courses to very practical ones. Students can be educated not only for academic professions, but also for technical professions, such as mechanics, nursing, medical technology, computer technology and book-keeping.

In universities young people study four years to get bachelor's degree. If one wants to get master's degree he/she must study two years more and do a research work. If one has master's degree, studies more, does a research work and passes an oral, comprehensive examination he/she gets doctor's degree (PhD).

ЛЗ 14. American Culture

План

1. Historical dimension.

2. Holidays and traditions.

3. The Metropolitan Museum of Art.

American culture is rich, complex, and unique. It emerged from the short and rapid European conquest of an enormous landmass sparsely settled by diverse indigenous peoples. Although European cultural patterns predominated, especially in language, the arts, and political institutions, peoples from Africa, Asia, and North America also contributed to American culture. All of these groups influenced popular tastes in music, dress, entertainment, and cuisine. As a result, American culture possesses an unusual mixture of patterns and forms forged from among its diverse peoples. The many melodies of American culture have not always been harmonious, but its complexity has created a society that struggles to achieve tolerance and produces a uniquely casual personal style that identifies Americans everywhere. The country is strongly committed to democracy, in which views of the majority prevail, and strives for equality in law and institutions.

Characteristics such as democracy and equality flourished in the American environment long before taking firm root in European societies, where the ideals originated. As early as the 1780s, Michel Guillaume Jean de

Crиvecoeur, a French writer living in Pennsylvania who wrote under the pseudonym J. Hector St. John, was impressed by the democratic nature of early American society. It was not until the 19th century that these tendencies in America were most fully expressed. When French political writer Alexis de Tocqueville, an acute social observer, traveled through the United States in the 1830s, he provided an unusually penetrating portrait of the nature of democracy in America and its cultural consequences. He commented that in all areas of culture—family life, law, arts, philosophy, and dress—Americans were inclined to emphasize the ordinary and easily accessible, rather than the unique and complex. His insight is as relevant today as it was when de Tocqueville visited the

United States. As a result, American culture is more often defined by its popular and democratically inclusive features, such as blockbuster movies, television comedies, sports stars, and fast food, than by its more cultivated aspects as performed in theaters, published in books, or viewed in museums and galleries. Even the fine arts in modern America often partake of the energy and forms of popular culture, and modern arts are often a product of the fusion of fine and popular arts.

While America is probably most well known for its popular arts, Americans partake in an enormous range of cultural activities. Besides being avid readers of a great variety of books and magazines catering to differing tastes and interests, Americans also attend museums, operas, and ballets in large numbers. They listen to country and classical music, jazz and folk music, as well as classic rock-and-roll and new wave. Americans attend and participate in basketball, football, baseball, and soccer games. They enjoy food from a wide range of foreign cuisines, such as

Chinese, Thai, Greek, French, Indian, Mexican, Italian, Ethiopian, and

Cuban. They have also developed their own regional foods, such as

California cuisine and Southwestern, Creole, and Southern cooking. Still evolving and drawing upon its ever more diverse population, American culture has come to symbolize what is most up-to-date and modern. American culture has also become increasingly international and is imported by countries around the world.

Imported Traditions

Today American culture often sets the pace in modern style. For much of its early history, however, the United States was considered culturally provincial and its arts second-rate, especially in painting and literature, where European artists defined quality and form. American artists often took their cues from European literary salons and art schools, and cultured Americans traveled to Europe to become educated. In the late 18th century, some American artists produced high-quality art, such as the paintings of John Singleton Copley and Gilbert Charles Stuart and the silver work of Paul Revere. However, wealthy Americans who collected art in the 19th century still bought works by European masters and acquired European decorative arts – porcelain, silver, and antique furniture –.. They then ventured further afield seeking more exotic decor, especially items from China and Japan. By acquiring foreign works, wealthy

Americans were able to obtain the status inherent in a long historical tradition, which the United States lacked. Americans such as Isabella

Stewart Gardner and Henry Clay Frick amassed extensive personal collections, which overwhelmingly emphasized non-American arts.

In literature, some 19th-century American writers believed that only the refined manners and perceptions associated with the European upper classes could produce truly great literary themes. These writers, notably Henry

James and Edith Wharton, often set their novels in the crosswinds of

European and American cultural contact. Britain especially served as the touchstone for culture and quality because of its role in America's history and the links of language and political institutions. Throughout the 19th century, Americans read and imitated British poetry and novels, such as those written by Sir Walter Scott and Charles Dickens.

ЛЗ 15. Customs, habits, traditions of the USA

План

1. customs

2. traditions

All countries have their social customs and peculiarities, and the US is no exception.

The first group of custom which is worth speaking about is connected with meeting someone. When meeting someone for the first time, it is customary to shake hands, both for men and for women. Hugs are only exchanged between close friends. Kissing is not common. Among friends, it’s common for men to kiss ladies on one or both cheeks. Men don’t usually kiss or embrace each other. Americans usually introduce themselves by their first name and last name (such as “Hello, I’m John Smith”), or, if the setting is very casual, by their first name only (“Hi, I’m John”). The common response when someone is introduced to you is “Pleased to meet you.” Americans generally dislike formality or any sort of social deference due to age or position, and most quickly say ‘Please call me Rick (or Rita)’. To Americans, informality shows no lack of respect. Because of the rise of women’s liberation in America, women may be introduced with the title ‘Ms’ (pronounced ‘mizz’) and some women object to being addressed as ‘Miss’ or ‘Mrs’. In some social circles, women are introduced after their husbands, e.g. Mrs Chuck Whizzkid, in which case you shouldn’t address her as Chuck! Americans often reply ‘You’re Welcome’ or something similar when somebody thanks them, and they may think you’re impolite if you don’t do likewise. If someone asks ‘How are you?’, it’s usual to reply ‘Fine thanks’ and don’t complain even if you feel dreadful.

Americans don’t have status or inherited titles (e.g. Sir or Lord) but it is necessary to defer to people with a professional title which has been earned. These include foreign diplomats (e.g. Sir), members of the Senate (Senator) or Congress (Congressman/Congresswoman), judges, medical doctors and others with a doctorate, military officers (e.g. General, Colonel), professors, priests and other religious ministers (e.g. Father, Rabbi, Reverend).

If you’re invited to dinner, it’s customary to take along a small present, e.g. flowers, a plant, chocolates or a bottle of wine (but nothing extravagant or ostentatious). But choosing flowers you should remember that American people pay attention to the meaning of flowers. For example carnations are associated with bad luck, chrysanthemums are for cemeteries and roses signify love.

Guests are normally expected to be punctual with the exception of certain society parties, when late arrival is de rigueur (provided you don’t arrive after the celebrity guest). It’s usual to arrive half an hour to an hour after the official start of a dance. Invitations to cocktail parties or receptions may state 5pm to 7pm, in which case you may arrive at any time between these hours. Dinner invitations are often phrased as 8pm for 8.30pm. This means you should arrive at 8pm for drinks and dinner will be served at 8.30pm. Anyone who arrives late for dinner or doesn’t turn up at all, should expect to be excluded from future guest lists. On the other hand, you must never arrive early.

The custom of not taking off the shoes is peculiar to Americans. That is why don’t think of whether you should take off your shoes or not. If it is necessary the host will warn you about it himself. When watching American films I always wondered why Americans did not take off their footwear. The matter turns out to be that there is no much dirty and dust in American streets. Some people who were in America say that it is possible to sit on some pavements and not to make oneself dirty. One more reason explaining this custom is that majority of Americans prefer driving but not going of foot. That is why they are not afraid of dirtying their houses.

Some families say grace before meals, so follow your host’s example before tucking in.

Table manners are more relaxed in the U.S. than in many other countries. The fork is held in the right hand and is used for eating. The knife is used to cut something. To use the knife, the fork is switched to the left hand. To continue eating, the fork is switched back to the right hand.

Don’t overstay your welcome. This becomes obvious when your host starts looking at his watch, talking about his early start the next day.

The custom which is also typical for the USA is tipping. Most Americans are shocked by anyone who doesn’t tip or who tips too little. The one you will encounter most often is at restaurants. American restaurants do not add a service charge to the bill. Therefore it is expected that the customer will leave a tip for the server. Common practice is to leave a tip that is equal to 15% of the total bill for acceptable service, and about 20% for superior service. If the service was unusually poor, then you could leave a smaller tip, about 10%. Other professions where tipping is expected include hairdressers, taxi drivers, hotel porters, parking valets, and bartenders. The general rule is to tip approximately 15% of the bill. In situations where there is no bill the tip may range from $1 to $5, depending on the type of establishment and on how good the service was.

The custom of tipping came to America from Great Britain. In the 18th century in Great Britain the boxes with the inscription T.I.P.S. which was meant To Insure Prompt Service were on the tables during having tea. Then this term came to America.

Baby showers have been a tradition in the US for a long time now, and are growing in popularity here, too. What better excuse is there for getting a group of friends together than to celebrate a new life? Plus, the mum-to-be get lots of great presents for her and her baby, result! The only person who shouldn't arrange a baby shower is the mum-to-be. The whole event should be great fun and completely stress-free for her. Friends, family or work colleagues are the usual organizers. You could either keep it as a surprise for the mum-to-be, or tell her what you are planning. Baby showers usually have some sort of baby theme to get everyone in the mood. Popular themes include:

Teddy bear's tea party. Get hold of as many teddies as you can and make sure each guest brings one, too! As presents, they could bring teddy bear-related books. The cake could be in the shape of a teddy bear. You get the general idea!

Nursery rhymes. Arrange toys linked to nursery rhymes around the room , such as shoes (There was an old lady), a spider (Little Miss Muffet), a bucket (Jack & Jill's pail), and toy boats (Row row row your boat). Ask guests if they can count how many rhymes are represented.

Books. Ask each guest to bring a book that meant something to them as a child. It's a great way for mum to start up her child's library. For decoration, everyone could also bring books to arrange around the room. The cake could be in the shape of a fairytale book.

One more tradition connected with babies is to give a baby a birthstone. The Tradition of Birthstones goes back further than written history. People wear jewelry containing stones designated for their Birth Month.

In the USA there are a lot of traditions connecting with wedding. It is known that before marriage engagement takes place. As a rule a man invite a woman to the restaurant to make her a proposal. Engagement ring obligatory should have a brilliant. The diamond engagement ring originated with King Maximillian who presented Mary of Burgundy with a diamond ring in 1477 as a token of his love.

And the ring is presented unexpectedly. It may found in the glass of champagne by the woman or in the bud of the rose. To my mind this tradition is very romantic.

The tradition of a Bachelor Party which is held for the Groom and usually sponsored by The Best Man the night before the Wedding and a Bridal Shower which is usually sponsored by The Bride's Maid is very popular in the USA. By the way the number of bridesmaids in America amount from two to twenty. The tradition of bridesmaids dressing the same as each other and in similar style to the bride comes from ancient days when it was believed that evil spirits have a more difficult time distinguishing which one is the bride and putting a hex on her.

The tradition of a Wedding Rehearsal Dinner also takes place in America. It is usually celebrated between the immediate families of spouses in the late afternoon the day before the wedding. The Groom's Family traditionally provides for this celebration.

The Wedding Ceremony is most often performed as part of a religious ceremony each with its own specific customs and traditions. On the day of the wedding the Groom does not see the Bride until the actual ceremony. As Custom would have it from Victorian Times: the Bride wears Something Old, Something New, Something Borrowed, Something Blue, and a Sixpence in her shoe.

The bride and groom exchange their rings to mark the permanent commitment of the new spouses to each other. The rings should be gold. According to history gold rings signified a financial sacrifice on the part of the prospective husband. Ring finger is the fourth ringer which is considered to be connected directly to the heart by a route that was called “the vein of love.” In the USA tradition of engraving of wedding rings is popular.

The kiss on weddings dates back to the earliest days of civilization in the Middle East. A kiss was used as the formal seal to agreements, contracts, etc. In Ancient Rome a kiss was still being used as the legal bold to seal contracts. Hence the obvious use of the custom at the end of the wedding ceremony to “seal” the marriage vows.

After the wedding ceremony newlyweds are covered with rice which is used as a symbol of fertility and as a wish for a “full pantry”.

A Wedding Reception is usually held after the ceremony for all family and friends to celebrate. The Bride's Family usually provides for this celebration.

Traditionally the groom’s flower, worn on his lapel, usually matches one of the flowers in his bride’s bouquet. This tradition goes back to medieval times when knights wore the colors of their lady in tournaments.

All of us know the tradition of throwing bridal bouquet and garter. The history of this tradition is very interesting I believe. In parts of Europe during the 14th contrary, having a piece of the bride’s clothing was thought to bring good luck. Guests would literally destroy the brides dress by ripping off pieces of fabric. In order to prevent this, brides began throwing their bouquets to the unwed girls. And grooms began to throw garter to unmarried men.

One more wedding tradition is connected with CARRYING THE BRIDE OVER THE THRESHOLD. Traditionally, the bride had to enter her new home the first time through the front door. If she tripped or stumbled while entering it was considered to be very bad luck. And the groom carried her over the threshold les she should stumble.Hence the tradition of the groom carrying the bride over the threshold.

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